Ion Exchange
As soils are formed during the weathering processes, some minerals and organic matter are broken down to extremely small particles. Chemical changes further reduce these particles until they cannot be seen with the naked eye. The very smallest particles are called colloids.
The mineral clay colloids are plate like in structure and crystalline in nature. In most soils; clay colloids exceed organic colloids in amount.
Colloids are primarily responsible for the chemical reactivity in soils. The kind of parent material and the degree of weathering determine the kinds of clays present in the soil. Since soil colloids are derived from these clays, their reactivity is also influenced by parent material and weathering. Each colloid (inorganic and organic) has a net negative (-) charge developed during the formation process. This means it can attract and hold positively (+) charged particles. An element with an electrical charge is called an ion.
Potassium, sodium (Na), hydrogen (H), Ca and Mg all has positive charges. They are called cations and ions with negative charges, such as nitrate and sulfate, are called anions.
Negatively charged colloids attract cations and hold them like a magnet holds small pieces of metal. This characteristic explains; why nitrate-N is more easily leached from the soil than ammonium-N. Nitrate has a negative charge like soil colloids. So, NO3- is not held by the soils, but remains as a free ion in soil water to be leached through the soil profile in some soils and under some rainfall conditions. The charges associated with soil particles attract simple and complex ions of opposite charge. Thus, a given colloidal mixture may exhibit not only a maze of positive and negative surface charges but also an equal complex complement of simple cations and anions such as Ca2+ and S04 – that are attracted by the particle charges.
The adsorbed anions are commonly present in smaller quantities than the cations because the negative charges generally predominate on the soil colloid.
Mechanism of Cation Exchange: The exchange of cations has been explained on the basis of the electro-kinetic theory of ion exchange. According to this theory, the adsorbed cations forming the outer shell of the ionic double layer are supposed to be in a state of oscillation when suspended in water, forming a diffuse double layer. Due to these oscillations, some of the cations move away from the surface of the clay micelle. In the presence of the solution of an electrolyte a cation of the added electrolyte slips in between the inner negative layer and the outer oscillating positive ion. The electrolyte cation is now adsorbed on the micelle and the surface cation remains in solution as an exchanged ion. Thus the exchange of cations takes place. Cations are positively charged nutrient ions and molecules. While, clay particles are negatively charged constituents of soils. These negatively charged particles (clay) attract, hold and release positively charged nutrient ions (cations). Organic matter particles also have a negative charge to attract cations. Sand particles carry little or no charge and do not react. Cations held by soils can be replaced by other cations. This means they are exchangeable. For example, Ca++ can be exchanged for H+ and /or K+ and vice versa.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): The CEC is the capacity of soil to hold and exchange cations. The cation exchange capacity is defined simply as the sum total of the exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb. The higher the CEC of soil the more cations it can retain. Soils differ in their capacities to hold exchangeable K+ and other cations.
The CEC depends on amount and kinds of clay and organic matter present. A high-clay soil can hold more exchangeable cations than a low-clay soil. CEC also increases as organic matter increases. Clay minerals usually range from 10 to 150 meq/100 g in CEC values. Organic matter ranges from 200 to 400 meq/100 g. So, the kind and amount of clay and organic matter content greatly influence the CEC of soils. Clay soils with high CEC can retain large amounts of cations against potential loss by leaching. Sandy soils, with low CEC, retain smaller quantities.
This makes timing and application rates important in planning a fertilizer programme. For example, it may not be wise to apply K on very sandy soils in the middle of a monsoon, where rainfall can be high and intense. Fertilizer application should be split to prevent leaching and losses through erosion. Also, splitting N applications to meet peak crop demand are important to reduce the potential for nitrate leaching on sands as well as finer-textured soils.
Means of Expression: The cation exchange capacity is expressed in terms of equivalents or more specifically, as milli equivalents per 100 gram and is written as meq /100g. The term equivalent is defined as one gram of atomic weight of hydrogen (or the amount of any other ion) that will combine with or displace this amount of hydrogen for monovalent ions such as Na+, K+, NH4+ and Cl -, the equivalent weight and atomic weight are same, since they can replace one H ion. Divalent cations such as Ca++ and Mg++ can take the place of two H+ ions. The milliequivalent weight of a substance is one thousandth of its atomic weight. Since the atomic weight of hydrogen is about 1 gram. The term milliequivalent (meq.) may be defined as 1 milligram of hydrogen.
This unit of exchangeable cations i.e. milliequivalent per 100 g of soil (meq/100g) was used prior to 1982. In the newer metric system the term equivalent is not used, however, now moles are the accepted chemical unit. All the calculation and concepts of "equivalents" are still mentally used but the notation must be written differently. The old "equivalent" is represented by moles (+) or mole, which indicates a monovalent ion portion. For example, to write 12.5 meq/100 g in the newer metric system, it can be written as: 12.5 c mol (+) kg-1 of soil (centimoles) or 125 m mol (+) kg-1 of soil (millimoles).
Replacing power of cations: The replacing power of cations varies with the type of ion, its size and degree of hydration, valence and concentration and the kind of clay mineral involved, as it is controlled by number of factors no single order of replacement can be given. All other factors being equal the replacing power of monovalent cations increases in the following order: Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs < H and for divalent cations: Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba. In case of mixture of monovalent and divalent cations as they exist in normal soils the replacing power increases in the following order: Na < K < NH4 < Mg < Ca < H. This means Na is more easily replaced than K and K more easily than NH4 and so on.
Percent base saturation: The percent of total CEC occupied by the major cations has been used in the past to develop fertilizer programs. The idea is that certain nutrient ratios or ‘balances’ are needed to ensure proper uptake by the crop for optimum yields. Research has shown, however, that cation saturation ranges and ratios have little or no utility in a vast majority of agricultural soils. Under field conditions, ranges of nutrients can vary widely with no detrimental effects, so long as individual nutrients are present in sufficient levels in the soil to support optimum plant growth.
Importance of Cation Exchange: Cation exchange is an important reaction in soil fertility, in causing and correcting soil acidity and basicity, in changes altering soil physical properties, and as a mechanism in purifying or altering percolating waters. The plant nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and potassium are supplied to plants in large measure from exchangeable forms.